Blood-brain barrier and cellular stress: Evidence in the blood"The blood-brain barrier (BBB) has sometimes been considered unique, but it is just a special case of cellular resilience that exists everywhere. For example, after intense exercise that causes fatigue and muscle damage, a unique brain protein, S100B, considered a crucial component of the BBB, can be found in the bloodstream. The exchange of substances—even proteins and nucleic acids—between cells and their environment increases under stress. The detection of substances like S100B in the blood is now recognized as an indicator of depression and brain damage." September 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
SSRIs, serotonin myths, and the synthesis of allopregnanolone in the brain"Since it was not possible to provide evidence to support the idea that serotonin is a mood-enhancing 'happiness hormone,' the industry sought an explanation for the therapeutic benefits it claims. It has generally settled on the notion that after several weeks of use, SSRIs increase the synthesis of the progesterone metabolite allopregnanolone in the brain. While this does occur, the synthesis of these protective steroids is also increased by any brain injury." September 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Cholesterol levels in the young brain compared to the aging brain"The healthy young brain contains a very large amount of cholesterol, almost all in the pure, non-esterified or free form – more than 99.5%, according to Orth and Bellosta (2012, citing Björkhem and Meaney, 2004). The aging, degenerating brain contains increasingly more esterified cholesterol." September 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Substance-enhanced brain growth and efficient energy use"Progesterone, glucose, or glycine converted to glucose (Zamenhof and Ahmad, 1979) increased brain growth by either increasing the energy supply or the ability to use energy effectively." September 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Nervous systems process substances within ecosystems.“Nervous systems – like living systems in general – process substances in a meaningful way, not just information. Every nervous system, every piece of living matter, exists as part of a larger life-sustaining system or ecosystem, and the larger system is shaped by how its components process substances.” September 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Effects of an increase in parathyroid hormone on body tissues"When vitamin D or calcium is deficient, or when phosphate is present in excess – as well as in cases of hypoglycemia and stress (Ljunghall et al., 1984) – parathyroid hormone levels rise. This can lead to softening of the bones and hardening of soft tissues, especially the arteries, and sometimes also of the brain, skin, and other organs. Parathyroid hormone increases blood pressure even before the calcium-induced stiffening is detected." September 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Benefits of coconut oil for thyroid and health"The easily oxidizable short- and medium-chain saturated fatty acids in coconut oil provide an energy source that protects our tissues from the toxic, inhibitory effects of unsaturated fatty acids and reduces their thyroid-suppressing effects. Animal studies over the last 60 years suggest that these effects also protect against cancer, heart disease, and premature aging. Other expected effects include protection against excessive blood clotting, protection of the fetal brain, protection against various stress-related problems including epilepsy, and some protection against sun damage to the skin." Nutrition For Women |
Progesterone as the predominant female hormone and its benefits for brain structure and function"Quantitatively, progesterone is the most important female hormone, and progesterone improves the structure and function of the brain." Nutrition For Women |
The influence of the environment on physical development"If our environment shrinks, if there isn't enough food, we can adapt, for example by replacing muscle with fat and having babies with smaller brains (the brain is an energy-intensive organ, even if its efficiency increases with the effort it consumes). If our environment meets our needs, our brains and muscles grow. The lower leg (like the brain) is a good indicator of environmental support: parents who grew up in a population with atrophied-looking lower legs can have children with beautifully developed legs when milk becomes plentiful." Nutrition For Women |
The role of the brain in storing favorable environmental characteristics"The brain (and especially its frontal lobe tissue) is like a window into present and past environments. It stores as much as possible of past environments, but above all, it stores those aspects of the environment that appear favorable – those that point to abundance and possibilities." Nutrition For Women |
Brain efficiency and energy levels over time"If a shrinking environment does not interfere, the passage of time leads to a brain state that is both more energetic and more efficient." Nutrition For Women |
The special properties of water in biological processes"Water is unusual in its capacity for internal structural change and in its heat capacity. During cell division, muscle contraction, and nerve stimulation, heat is released (followed by heat absorption when muscle or nerve recovers) that cannot be explained by any known chemical change. Its order decreases with increasing temperature unless order is introduced by other substances. (The brain has utilized and exaggerated these properties of water.)" Nutrition For Women |
Environmental influence on evolution and heredity"The accumulation of environmental aspects in our tissues, which alters our tissues—their function and their affinity for different substances—is a short-term analogue to the general upward drift of evolution and currently has known and clear links to heredity: hormonal influences travel in both directions via the placenta, and the mother's efficiency determines the supply of nutrients—e.g., sugars—to the fetus. Continuing modifications, transgenerational environmental influences, are visible in a wide variety of organisms and organs, but in the brain—the environmental organ—these Lamarckian effects are so visible and so crucial." Nutrition For Women |
Relationship between social conditions, hormones and brain size"Behavior influences hormones, and hormones influence behavior. Living in a 'rat cage' society shrinks brains and causes people to do things that perpetuate oppressive conditions. Nutritional and hormonal social interventions can change that." Nutrition For Women |
Relationship between brain size, longevity and health"It has been observed that the ratio of brain weight to body weight directly corresponds to longevity. The brain has a nourishing, trophic influence on other tissues. A stable, efficient brain acts as an anti-stress factor." Nutrition For Women |
Stress hormones, nutrition and longevity"Stress hormones age various tissues, including the brain and collagen in connective tissue. Good nutrition – including the anti-stress substances found in certain foods – will simultaneously optimize intelligence and increase healthy lifespan." Nutrition For Women |
The effects of vitamin E deficiency on tissue function"In a vitamin E deficiency, certain tissues lose so much ATP that they can no longer function normally. Muscles cramp and can eventually harden and become dystrophic. Magnesium also helps maintain ATP levels and can be used, for example, to stop menstrual cramps. In an extreme case of vitamin E deficiency, reflexes become abnormal; in some animals, softening of the brain is the first symptom of a vitamin E deficiency." Nutrition For Women |
The role of the frontal lobes in anticipation and planning"The evolutionarily most advanced part of the brain is the expectation/planning system in the frontal lobes. A delayed and appropriate response is impossible if these lobes are not functioning properly. In a healthy animal, arousal means expectation: the longer arousal can be maintained without distraction, the higher the energy charge will be and the more intense and satisfying the outcome will be." Nutrition For Women |
Endocrine interactions and the compensatory role of the thyroid gland in relation to estrogen"The idea of physiological compensation is sometimes overlooked in the interpretation of endocrine interactions, leading to confusing results. The brain-pituitary system (not just the hypothalamus, since the entire brain and sensory system act as reflex instigators) is probably the most important regulatory or compensatory system. When an animal is injected with estrogen, the level of thyroid-stimulating hormone increases (Brown-Grant, J. Endocr. 35, 263, 1966). This should be understood as an indication that the peripheral effects of estrogen can be compensated by thyroxine. If thyroid function is borderline, this would also suggest that elevated estrogen could remain peripherally uncompensated. There are many well-known examples of metabolic or functional opposition between estrogen and the thyroid gland." Nutrition For Women |
The effects of hypoxia and hypoglycemia on the fetal brain"It is well known that hypoxia damages the fetal brain, but it is probably less well known that hypoglycemia – whether chronic or acute – can cause brain damage and developmental delays." Nutrition For Women |
The role of progesterone therapy in preventing brain damage and potentially increasing IQ"In my opinion, the most urgent need for progesterone therapy is to prevent a continuing epidemic of brain damage. In addition, many studies have found that the use of natural progesterone increases a child's IQ—typically by about 35 points (although there are claims of consistent IQs of 200)—and produces personalities that are more independent, individualistic, self-confident, self-sufficient, and sensitive." Nutrition For Women |
Hypoglycemia: Effects on brain and immune function"Hypoglycemia (which can result from any respiratory defect) can cause malfunctions in any tissue, but dysfunction of the brain and immune system are very common consequences." Nutrition For Women |
Different effects of progesterone and cortisone on blood sugar, brain stability and brain aging"Although progesterone and cortisone both increase blood sugar and stabilize lysosomes, their effects on the brain are very different: at high doses, progesterone has a sedative and anesthetic effect, while cortisone has a stimulating effect – and cortisone causes changes in the brain that resemble aging." Nutrition For Women |
Effects of progesterone treatment on veins and suicidal depression"Just as veins on the forehead immediately shrink when a large amount of sugar is consumed during a migraine, I have seen veins (on the back of the hand) disappear under progesterone treatment – precisely at the moment when a suicidal depression lifts. This suggests that there could be a migraine-like situation in the blood vessels within the brain's limbic system, but there are also very rapid shifts in brain chemistry." Nutrition For Women |
The importance of biotin for fat synthesis in the nervous system"Biotin is involved in the synthesis of fats in the nervous system and should therefore probably receive special attention in the MS diet." Nutrition For Women |
Psychoactive substances and their effects on chronic conditions“During LSD research, it was observed that people with chronic headaches, asthma, or psoriasis sometimes experienced a complete recovery during treatment with frequent doses of LSD. Another alkaloid derived from ergot, bromocriptine, is now used to suppress lactation (such as that caused by a prolactin-secreting pituitary tumor, which can develop after the use of oral contraceptives) and is being used experimentally to treat Parkinson’s disease. Both LSD and bromocriptine shift the ratio of two brain chemicals, DOPA and serotonin, toward DOPA dominance. Among the effects is an inhibition of prolactin secretion. Excess prolactin is implicated in breast cancer and other cell proliferation, and is thought to be involved in the rapid cell division seen in psoriasis.” Nutrition For Women |
Diabetes, pregnancy and the supply of nutrients to the fetal brain"It's known that women with diabetes typically have large babies with big heads who learn quickly. With each pregnancy, a woman tends to have a lower glucose tolerance or appear more diabetic. HCG, the hormone that helps maintain pregnancy, raises blood sugar to meet the fetus's need for plenty of sugar. So, diabetes and pregnancy have a lot in common. And as a woman gets older, she's more prone to diabetes and therefore tends to provide better nutrition for the fetus, especially its brain. Aside from this natural tendency, a more mature woman is also less likely to live on snack foods." Nutrition For Women |
Maternal adaptation to fat and the glucose dependence of the fetus"During pregnancy, the mother's body increasingly adapts to living on fat, so that most of the available sugar can be used by the baby. The brain consumes most of the body's glucose, so mental fatigue can easily affect blood sugar levels. The developing baby is extremely dependent on glucose as an energy source, and its brain can be damaged by a lack of sugar." Nutrition For Women |
Destruction of vitamin E by iron salts in animal feed"Around 1940, laboratory animals fed a commercially produced feed began to show signs of vitamin E deficiency and die of softening of the brain. The manufacturers knew they had added vitamin E to the mixture, but when they tested it, they found it contained none at all. It turned out that the iron salts added to the feed destroyed the vitamin E." Nutrition For Women |
Brain damage in animals and human aggression"It is known that brain-damaged animals become aggressive; could poisoning be a cause of human aggression?" Nutrition For Women |
Nutritional status and its different effects on body tissues"The body's various tissues can still function acceptably at different nutritional levels. For example, the skin, with its low energy requirements, generally seems to remain alive for several hours after the body's death. The brain, with its extremely high energy requirements, is usually the first to suffer from energy deficiency. In mild cases of deficiency, the brain simply loses functional efficiency, but a more severe or prolonged deficiency can cause lasting changes or even structural damage that are relatively permanent (and may even have transgenerational effects)." Nutrition For Women |
The particular sensitivity of the front part of the brain to function"The front part of the brain, which is most distinctly human (and the newest), but has no specific function in the usual sense, is one of the most sensitive parts of the brain. It is a very large piece of tissue and appears to be involved in planning and decision-making and in controlling the other, more specific functions. (This part of the brain—as well as the cerebral cortex in general—gives us the ability to ignore stimuli, to use Lendon Smith's expression.)" Nutrition For Women |
The effect of weak radiation on metabolic efficiency and sensitivity of brain tissue“Many forms of very weak radiation can reduce the efficiency of metabolism, thereby increasing its energy requirements, and brain tissue is – at least to some types of radiation – the most sensitive tissue.” Nutrition For Women |
High coffee consumption and improved blood flow to the brain."Coffee improves blood flow to the brain; Benjamin Franklin and Goethe are said to have drunk 30 to 65 cups a day. This amount would be close to the maximum safe daily caffeine dose of 6 grams." Nutrition For Women |
Small doses of caffeine and their sedative effect on the brain"Very small doses of caffeine have a paradoxical sedative effect, but that is a known effect of anything that increases the brain's energy level." Nutrition For Women |
The effect of caffeine on the sympathetic nervous system and cAMP levels"Caffeine (which does not necessarily have the same physiological effect as coffee) stimulates the sympathetic nervous system and increases the cellular level of cyclic AMP." Nutrition For Women |
The role of caffeine in the immune system and possible anti-cancer properties"Caffeine can boost immunity – both via the nervous system and directly. When injected into the brain of an animal, it was found to slow the growth of cancer. Recently, it was discovered by chance that a very small amount of caffeine, mixed with the tars from cigarette smoke, prevented this material from causing cancer." Nutrition For Women |
The influence of vitamin C on tyrosine metabolism and adrenaline levels in tissue"Tyrosine metabolism, which is involved in brain function, is sensitive to vitamin C; furthermore, vitamin C maintains adrenaline levels in tissues, possibly by inhibiting its oxidation, and adrenaline is necessary for the chalons to perform their function of inhibiting cell division." Nutrition For Women |
The importance of saturated fats for brain development"Recent studies show that animal fats (saturated) are essential for proper brain development and that unsaturated fats (such as those found in typical infant formula) can harm brain development." Nutrition For Women |
The high energy consumption of an active brain"An active brain can burn about half of the total energy consumed by the body. When brain activity is suppressed, a very large proportion of the food consumed becomes available for fat storage." Nutrition For Women |
Amphetamines and their effects on appetite and hyperactivity"Amphetamines mimic the action of the alarm part of the nervous system (sympathetic nervous system), thereby increasing blood sugar levels; this is probably the mechanism (or part of it) that suppresses appetite. Low blood sugar is associated with hyperactivity, and this is presumably why the same drug is effective for the hundreds of thousands of unruly children who are given it to make them sit still in school; coffee works just as well for hyperactivity and may also help with weight loss." Nutrition For Women |
Brain energy consumption during active versus passive movement"In Russia, physiologists always consider the brain in their calculations, and it turns out that a walk through interesting and pleasant surroundings consumes more energy than harder but more boring exercise. An active brain consumes an enormous amount of fuel." Nutrition For Women |
The role of brain activity in strengthening muscles"In the last century, Sechenov discovered that training one hand not only strengthens that hand, but also the other. Brain activity stimulates the growth and change of tissues, for example, muscles." Nutrition For Women |
Gender-specific differences in brain superiority and imbalance"At first glance, this female superiority of the brain – if we start from the general mammalian understanding of the ratio of brain to body weight – seems to be a devaluation of men. However, the view I propose also ascribes a certain strength to the male imbalance itself." Nutrition For Women |
Misconceptions about thyroxine and thyroid hormone treatments"When pure thyroxine became available and replaced the use of dried thyroid to treat hypothyroidism, it led to two very important errors that became deeply ingrained in medical practice. It was decided that no more than 5% of the population had a thyroid hormone deficiency, and experiments were used to argue that thermogenesis, as well as increased metabolism and oxygen consumption, were not important effects of the hormone because the liver was the only organ that increased its oxygen consumption when thyroxine was added, and because added thyroxine decreased the brain's oxygen consumption. The error lay in defining thyroxine as the thyroid hormone. The liver is the main organ that converts thyroxine into the active thyroid hormone triiodothyronine, T3, so it could respond metabolically to thyroxine." November 2020 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Low cholesterol and its effects on mental health"Low serum cholesterol has been linked to depression, suicide, violence, and increased cancer mortality. Since statins cross into the brain and inhibit cholesterol synthesis there, reduced mitochondrial function is undoubtedly a factor in the psychological side effects they can cause." November 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The synergy of cholesterol and progesterone"The functions of cholesterol are similar in many respects to those of progesterone. In the pregnant uterus, for example, the relaxing function of progesterone is supported by cholesterol (Smith et al., 2005). In the brain, the excitation of nerves by glutamic acid is controlled by an uptake protein that binds this neurotransmitter, and the function of this protein depends on cholesterol; a reduction in cholesterol prolongs nerve excitation." November 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Excitatory signaling and cholesterol in the brain"Excitatory signaling appears to contribute to the loss of cholesterol in the brain during aging; the amount of cholesterol in synapses decreases with age (Sodero et al., 2011). Although excitatory (glutamatergic) stimulation lowers cholesterol in the brain, environmental enrichment (meaningful experience) increases it (Levi et al., 2005) and also reverses the age-related decline in cholesterol-derived neurosteroids." November 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Cholesterol ester accumulation and neurodegeneration"In the brain, the accumulation of cholesterol esters (at the expense of free cholesterol) increases with age and contributes to neurodegeneration. An intervention that releases cholesterol from fatty acids has a neuroprotective effect in a worm model of Parkinson's disease." November 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Prenatal influences on brain development and adaptability“Experiments over the last 60 years have shown that varying levels of glucose, carbon dioxide, heat, and progesterone during embryonic and fetal development can influence brain growth and the way the brain controls later development and adaptability.” November 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The role of the nervous system in early development"From a very early stage of development, the nervous system coordinates the interactions of the tissues." November 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Survival mechanisms of the brain during stressful environmental interactions"In mediating adaptation, the brain orients the organism towards those aspects of the environment that are most likely to satisfy its needs, and this involves judgments about possible future situations. If favorable prospects are lacking, the brain focuses on defensive changes, increasing stress hormones and fight-or-flight mechanisms, and begins converting some of its own tissue into energy and materials needed for the survival of its essential organs: brain, lungs, and heart." November 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The role of the nervous system in emotional stress and survival"Emotional stress is organized by the nervous system and alters hormones and cell functions that improve immediate survival." November 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Constant reworking and reconstruction of body tissues"All tissues of the body, including the brain, are subject to constant revision and reconstruction." November 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The inhibitory effect of stimulants on cancer cells and tumor growth"This effect of stimulants is probably also involved in their inhibition of cell division in cultured cancer cells (for example, ephedrine and theophylline) as well as in the ability of caffeine, when injected into the brain, to slow tumor growth elsewhere in the body." Mind And Tissue Russian Research Perspectives on the Human Brain |
Intestinal disorders and diseases of the nervous system: The role of toxins"Intestinal irritation can cause disturbances of the nervous system and should be considered as a possible cause of attention deficit disorders. Toxins produced by intestinal bacteria can directly affect the brain, but more often they work by damaging the liver's ability to regulate blood sugar." Mind And Tissue Russian Research Perspectives on the Human Brain |
Circadian rhythms of brain activity and mental health: The role of light and pineal gland stimulation"Since normal humans have pronounced circadian rhythmic cycles of brain activity (reflecting an appropriate concentration of brain amines) and many psychotics exhibit flattened cycles – with disturbed sleep as well as disturbed waking consciousness – cyclical light stimulation of skin and head could be desirable to support regular cyclical activity of the pineal gland and brain." Mind And Tissue Russian Research Perspectives on the Human Brain |
Biological effects of magnetic fields: Sedation and changes in brain chemistry"Magnetic fields likely have a biological effect by influencing the structure of water, and Kholodov has shown that a continuous sinusoidal magnetic field has a sedative and inhibitory effect, alters the EEG, and increases GABA levels in the brain (Speranskiy, 1973). Oxygen activity increases in magnetically treated water (Speranskiy, 1973), therefore there could be a direct effect on energy production." Mind And Tissue Russian Research Perspectives on the Human Brain |
Nervismus in Russian Medicine: The Role of the Brain in Illness and Recovery"Ritis, polyarteritis, and osteoarthritis. The ancient tradition of Russian medicine, Nervismus, which reminded physicians that the brain must always be considered as a factor in illness and recovery, was enriched by the work of Pavlov and his successors. The most valuable lesson of this tradition for American medicine might be its optimism, which is based on the idea of plasticity." Mind And Tissue Russian Research Perspectives on the Human Brain |
Regeneration in neuropsychiatric disorders: Indications of nerve tissue renewal"Some of these treatments for neuropsychiatric diseases also promote the regeneration, growth, and multiplication of nerve cells. Filatov, Polezhaev, and others have clearly demonstrated the regeneration of nerve tissue in the brain, cerebral cortex, and optic nerve." Mind And Tissue Russian Research Perspectives on the Human Brain |
Brain amines during hypoxia: effects on sleep, wakefulness, and respiratory adaptation"Cerebral amines appear to support these ordered states – clarity of thought during wakefulness as well as the soundness of sleep require sufficient amines. In hypoxic rats, monoamine oxidase activity decreases, and respiratory efficacy appears to increase adaptively (Khvatova, Rubanova and Zhilina, Voprosy Meditsinskoy Khimii 19(1), 3–5, 1973. Administration of monoamine oxidase inhibitors improves the resistance of mice to hypoxia (Piskarev et al., Farmakologiy i Toksikologiya 36(1), 4854, 1973)." Mind And Tissue Russian Research Perspectives on the Human Brain |
Progesterone and vitamin D in the restoration of nerve function"Studies on progesterone's effect on restoring nerve function after traumatic brain injury have shown that vitamin D enhances its effectiveness. By improving calcium homeostasis and counteracting the effects of parathyroid hormone, which activates calcium channels, vitamin D (25-hydroxycholecalciferol) is increasingly being viewed as a neurosteroid (Groves et al., 2014; Gezen-Ak and Dursun, 2019) – as well as an essential factor for immunity." May 2020 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Progesterone's effect on allopregnanolone levels in the brain"Taking progesterone reliably increases the allopregnanolone level in the brain. Even a small oral dose of progesterone triples (196% increase) the concentration of allopregnanolone (Andréen et al., 2006). Supplementation with pregnenolone also increases allopregnanolone." May 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Estrogen increases serotonin synthesis in the brain."Estrogen increases the brain's ability to synthesize serotonin." May 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Effects of pregnancy on women's brain structure“In women, MRI scans (Hoekzema et al., 2017) show that the brain’s gray matter shrinks significantly during pregnancy—similar to changes caused by advanced aging—and in some women, these changes were still present two years later. However, another study found a very rapid recovery of brain structure in the second month after giving birth. In these healthy women, the brain’s recovery in this two-month period corresponded to a rejuvenation of five years (Luders et al., 2018).” May 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Progesterone levels after childbirth and brain recovery"In healthy women, progesterone levels are significantly higher after childbirth than before pregnancy – seven times higher in plasma and three times higher in cerebrospinal fluid (Datta et al., 1986). This corresponds to the period of brain recovery." May 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Positive effects of progesterone on brain development"Many studies over the last 60 years have shown the positive effects of progesterone on brain development: It enlarges the brain, increases the thickness of the cerebral cortex, increases resistance to injury and improves functional quality." May 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Prenatal estrogen and its effects on brain size"Prenatally, an excess of estrogen inhibits cell growth, resulting in a smaller brain with a thinner cerebral cortex at birth. In adult animals, it can cause seizures and excitotoxic cell death." May 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Progesterone after childbirth and brain health"With insufficient cholesterol, the normally high progesterone concentration after childbirth is unlikely to be maintained. Instead of brain recovery, the various pro-inflammatory effects of serotonin and estrogen will then predominate – with consequences such as depression, joint pain, anxiety, and cerebral edema." May 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Societal repression of childhood trauma and brain damage“Frances Tustin wrote that there is a persistent repression in American society of the causes of harm to millions of children, who are traumatized and suffer brain damage as a result of cruel treatment by parents who are otherwise too busy to love and care for their babies. A study of adopted Romanian babies confirmed the observations of many people from previous decades that impersonal treatment in orphanages harms many of the children.” May 2018 – Ray Peats Newsletter |
Energy consumption of the brain during adaptation and simplification"The brain has an extremely high metabolic rate and uses energy to adapt to the constant influx of sensory information from the body and the environment. Where it lacks energy, it reduces and simplifies. At full energy, it builds a continuous model of itself and of the things it interacts with – and each of these is a process. In a state of low mental energy, things become categories instead of processes, and they no longer take place in a continuous life story." May 2018 – Ray Peats Newsletter |
Anti-excitotoxic substances and the significance of the CO₂/lactate ratio"Anti-excitotoxic substances include progesterone, memantine, minocycline, and agmatine. A high CO₂ to lactate ratio, which lowers the intracellular pH, is important to prevent excessive excitability. Thyroid hormone—in addition to directly increasing energy and the CO₂/lactate ratio—tends to raise brain temperature and increase the progesterone to estrogen ratio." May 2018 – Ray Peats Newsletter |
Therapeutic development of carbon dioxide"Carbon dioxide was once regarded as a hormone and used medically for ulcers, arthritis, cancer, and mental problems. Yandell Henderson's work led to its use as carbogen (5% CO₂, 95% O₂) for resuscitation. However, by the middle of the century, most therapeutic uses had been discontinued; hospitals were instructed to use pure oxygen instead of carbogen, and patients with cerebral edema were hyperventilated with oxygen to lower their blood carbon dioxide levels." March 2020 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Decline in the use of urea to treat brain injuries"As recently as the 1950s, urea was recognized as the most effective treatment for cerebral swelling. However, the scientifically grounded membrane theory concluded that the removal of water from cells was always controlled by osmosis, and since urea could remove water from cells, it must be osmotically active. As an osmolyte, it was added to distilled water for intravenous administration, and the red blood cells then behaved as they would in distilled water: they dissolved. The report that urea caused hemolysis led to its use in treating brain injuries being generally discontinued." March 2020 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Effects of CO₂ on muscle contraction and blood flow to the brain"In the 1950s, Gilbert Ling discovered that at elevated carbon dioxide concentrations, a specific stimulus elicits less muscle contraction than at lower carbon dioxide concentrations. Around the same time, Russian physiologists found that the CO₂ produced by active brain cells relaxes the blood vessels in the brain – including the capillaries – thus increasing blood flow in proportion to rising metabolic demands." March 2020 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Transgenerational burden and health consequences"Many things that are considered non-toxic and non-carcinogenic today are likely harmful if exposure continues over several generations. Impaired brain development in infants, allergies, and autoimmune diseases have been shown to result from a wide variety of causes – from radiation to mild chronic stress." March 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Immune system: restoration or inflammation"Our so-called immune system recognizes unfavorable changes in the structural-energetic system and reacts silently to restore the system: It removes abnormal structures and supports the restoration of function. If the organism's condition is not good, inflammation occurs instead of invisible restoration—a process in which crude, temporary repairs are made so that the damaged tissue does not continue to demand resources that are not available. A scar forms; relatively inert, fibrotic tissue replaces the fully functional tissue. This happens progressively with continued exposure to harmful factors and gradually affects the lungs, heart, blood vessels, gonads, liver, kidneys, brain…." March 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Brain function as a cybernetic control system"Anyone who follows Norbert Wiener's example and views the brain more as a cybernetic control system than as a logic machine has a fruitful model that can represent the brain as it undergoes various changes of state." March 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Metabolic changes during sleep in organisms"The entire organism sleeps, even though the brain regulates the process. In some aspects of its metabolism – particularly in the turnover of phospholipids – the brain is very active during sleep, but its energy consumption decreases, and it ensures that the skeletal muscles relax, thereby reducing their glucose consumption." March 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
In vitro resonance of brain cells with sleep rhythms"Groups of brain cells taken from a brain and observed in vitro interact in a way similar to the resonance of electrons in molecules or of molecules in physical objects: their electrical activity is gradually coordinated and produces electrical signals similar to the EEG (electroencephalogram) signal of a brain in a state of slow-wave (deep) sleep." March 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Independent onset of the sleep-wake cycle in individual brain regions"A small area of the brain can enter the sleep rhythm earlier than other areas if it has been more strongly stimulated." March 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
High-energy resting states of the brain and ATP content of the muscles"The electrical and metabolic properties of this high-energy resting state of the brain can be seen in healthy skeletal muscles: they have a high ATP content and relax immediately after stimulation and contraction. If ATP is depleted by prolonged intense stimulation or is not replenished quickly enough – for example, in hypothyroidism – relaxation is very slow, leading to cramps." March 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Influence of hypothyroidism on sleep and cell activity"Since thyroid hormone is needed throughout the body for oxidative metabolism, a deficiency leads to brain cells relaxing only slowly. This delays the onset of sleep and can even prevent the deepest, most restorative sleep. Because all cells are regulated by excitatory and inhibitory processes, an underactive thyroid can also create a tendency towards excitatory states, which can lead, for example, to abnormal secretion and proliferation." March 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
How sleep begins in the brain"Sleep begins in the cerebral cortex and spreads to other parts of the brain and body." March 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Role of mitochondria in nighttime brain function"Optimizing mitochondrial function at the beginning of the night makes the brain's inhibitory signals more effective, conserves glycogen stores, and reduces nighttime catabolism." March 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Nighttime lipid turnover in the brain and dynamics of fatty acids"The nocturnal increase in serum free fatty acids coincides with a high turnover rate of brain phospholipids. Polyunsaturated fatty acids are preferentially released from fat stores – in proportion to their degree of unsaturation (Raclot, 2003; Conner et al., 1996). Their exchange with brain lipids therefore means that the brain is enriched each night with the highly unsaturated fats that are most susceptible to lipid peroxidation." March 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Influence of the gut and treatments for Parkinson's disease"The gut can influence the brain, and we have discovered a variety of things that damage the substantia nigra and thereby cause Parkinson's disease. Some behaviors—drinking coffee or alcohol, smoking, using aspirin—significantly reduce the risk. These observations suggest that there are effective ways to treat Parkinson's with diet, laxatives, and anti-inflammatory substances." March 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Role of endotoxin in the activation of inflammatory processes"Endotoxin, a lipopolysaccharide, has a generally excitatory effect that activates cellular inflammatory processes and impairs energy production – mediated by cell products such as nitric oxide, carbon monoxide, serotonin, histamine, prostaglandins, estrogens, and various cytokines (interleukins and tumor necrosis factor, TNF). Some of these substances enter the bloodstream from the intestine, others are produced elsewhere in the body, and some are formed in the brain itself when endotoxin is taken up into the brain." March 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Age-related changes in the brain, exacerbated by estrogen"As we age, iron and polyunsaturated fats accumulate in the brain. Estrogen slows the breakdown of dopamine, thereby increasing the likelihood of it reacting toxically with iron and highly unsaturated fats—especially arachidonic acid and DHA. It also tends to increase the production of prostaglandins and nitric oxide. The opposing effects of progesterone likely explain why Parkinson's disease is less common in women than in men." March 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The role of the brain in overall health"The brain is a factor in every illness or injury, and if the brain is not functioning properly, every other system is affected." March 2016 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Protective effect of progesterone in the brain“Animal studies since the 1950s have clearly demonstrated the protective, stabilizing and restorative effects of progesterone on the brain, and the direct effects of progesterone on brain cells have been demonstrated in vitro.” March 2016 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Progesterone protects organs"All organs affected by a brain injury – kidneys, lungs, intestines, heart, liver, blood vessels, thymus, bones and bone marrow, as well as endocrine glands – are protected by progesterone." March 2016 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Overlooked effects of stress on the gut"Although the effects of stress on the gut have been known since Hans Selye described the general adaptation syndrome (with intestinal bleeding as an early sign of stress), this has not been taken into account in any of the major studies on traumatic brain injury or stroke." March 2016 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Link between encephalitis and organs"The inflammatory, degenerative processes in the brain take several hours to develop, and during these hours, the stress signals from the brain cause changes in the gut that lead to a systemic inflammatory state." March 2016 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Toxicity of free fatty acids"Free fatty acids – especially when they are polyunsaturated – are toxic to the brain: They promote inflammation and block energy metabolism." March 2016 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Individual needs after brain injuries"Every person with a traumatic brain injury has individual needs that don't fit well with the stereotypical treatments used in clinical trials. Nevertheless, there are common features of every brain injury, and these overlap with the characteristics of different types of shock as well as with degenerative processes of certain organs." March 2016 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The protective role of progesterone"Progesterone (and its metabolites, including allopregnanolone) protects against the harmful changes caused by brain injury." March 2016 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Urea's lost role in brain treatment"Fifty years ago, urea was widely used to treat brain injuries, but a misunderstanding of its physical properties – and now the availability of highly profitable vaptans – has pushed it aside." March 2016 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Role of free tryptophan in serotonin production in the brain"Elevated levels of free tryptophan in the blood are the most important factor determining serotonin production in the brain. And free fatty acids, which are produced by stress, cause bound tryptophan in the blood to be released from albumin." July 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Misconception about sugar and the effect of tryptophan on the brain"Almost everyone in the US is familiar with the claim that sugar makes you relax and sleepy because it ensures that tryptophan gets into the brain. In fact, however, it is hypoglycemia – which triggers irritability and anxiety – that increases the uptake of tryptophan into the brain." July 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Enzymatic control of serotonin synthesis in the brain"The synthesis of serotonin in the brain depends on the activity of the enzyme tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH). This enzyme is activated by excitation of the cell – with increased intracellular calcium and reduced glutathione (GSH) – and inactivated by oxidation of glutathione." July 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Serotonin balance: synthesis vs. degradation"The amount of serotonin in the brain at any given time is influenced by various factors that alter the balance between its synthesis and its storage or breakdown. The so-called serotonin transporter binds and holds serotonin, thereby reducing its interactions with other cell components. The enzyme monoamine oxidase (MAO) breaks down serotonin and converts it into the inactive 5-HIAA." July 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Relationship between serotonin levels in different tissues"It has been shown that the amount of serotonin in urine, blood and brain is very closely related." July 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Serotonin's dual effect on blood vessels and inflammation"Although its name, serotonin, is based on its ability to constrict blood vessels, it also increases their permeability. Both effects contribute to its role in fatigue and inflammation – as well as to the therapeutic effects of serotonin antagonists in various problems, including arthritis (Cloutier et al., 2012) and traumatic brain injury." July 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Serotonin increase after exertion and brain permeability"Strenuous exercise that increases serotonin reduces the brain's ability to filter out harmful substances – including small particles." July 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Effect of endotoxin on serotonin in the brain and the enzyme IDO"When large amounts of serotonin are released into the serum by endotoxin, the amount of serotonin in the brain does not necessarily increase. Endotoxin induces a tryptophan-degrading enzyme, IDO, in the brain, which produces substances that can be pro-inflammatory and immunosuppressive." July 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Serotonin's pathway: From the gut to its effects in the brain"Processes in the gut, where most serotonin is produced, in the blood, where it is transported, and in the lungs, where a large part of it is detoxified, affect the brain. Toxins produced by gut bacteria cause serotonin to be released into the bloodstream, and if the platelets cannot bind it tightly enough until the lungs can eliminate it, some of it reaches the brain, where it impairs sleep and other brain functions." July 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Brain-stabilizing effects of carbon dioxide"Since carbon dioxide has stabilizing effects in the brain, including the relaxation of blood vessels, a loss of carbon dioxide leads to vasoconstriction, an insufficient supply of oxygen and glucose to the brain, and thus to a reduced metabolic rate." July 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Indications of the redox balance in the brain in mental disorders"MRI can also directly measure the redox balance (NAD/NADH) of the brain, and it has been found that people with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder have lower ratios – meaning their cells are less well oxidized. Even before any mental impairment develops, people who later develop Alzheimer's experience reductive stress." July 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Therapeutic potential of the direct application of carbon dioxide"The direct application of carbon dioxide should be helpful in all situations known to benefit from acetazolamide – but without the risk of an allergy to this drug: traumatic cerebral edema, altitude sickness, osteoporosis, epilepsy, glaucoma, ADHD, inflammation, intestinal polyps, and arthritis. Diabetes, cardiomyopathy (Torella et al., 2014), obesity (Arechederra et al., 2013), cancer, dementia, and psychoses may also benefit." July 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Hyperexcitation in cancer physiology"An important part of cancer physiology is the overexcitation of the brain, especially the hypothalamus." July 2016 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Metabolic shifts in extreme stress and learned helplessness"When the organism as a whole is overloaded and the stress physiology transitions into states of learned helplessness™ or shock, its metabolism shifts towards a reductive, pseudohypoxic metabolism in which the nervous system suppresses oxidative metabolism." July 2016 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Stress-related parasympathetic dysfunction and tumors"In cases of severe, prolonged stress, the body's stress-limiting parasympathetic nervous system can become counterproductive and promote excitotoxicity, inflammation, and tumor growth." July 2016 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Early stress affects lifespan and brain development"Reduced energy production as compensation for stress at the beginning of life determines the quality of pregnancy and the life trajectory of the developmental process. It limits brain size, the ability to generate and utilize energy, and lifespan." January 2021 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Independent progesterone synthesis in the brain and its function"Progesterone is an essential factor for nerve growth. Since the 1990s, it has been known that the brain synthesizes it itself and maintains a local progesterone concentration that is higher than the concentration in the bloodstream." January 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
A larger brain is associated with intelligence and longevity."In animals in general, a larger brain is not only associated with higher intelligence, but also with greater longevity." January 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The role of progesterone in energy processes in the brain"A fundamental part of progesterone's ability to protect the brain from stress is probably that it supports the energy-intensive mitochondrial oxidation of glucose to carbon dioxide." January 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Sensitivity of the cerebral cortex to the energy state"The cerebral cortex of the brain, especially the frontal lobes, is the part that is most sensitive to sufficient or insufficient energy." January 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Russian theories of the nervous system that challenge traditional models"A Russian approach to the nervous system, as represented by P.K. Anokhin, developed an understanding similar to that of Wiener. Anokhin pointed to physiological processes that were incompatible with the telegraphic all-or-nothing model of nerve function." January 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Progesterone's effect on the reticular activating system"The reticular activating system of the brainstem, which is responsible for alert attention and muscle relaxation, is central to the orientation reflex and responds to progesterone." January 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Progesterone increases REM sleep and indicates continued orientation."It has been suggested (Sanford et al., 1993) that the presence of these waves in REM sleep indicates that the brain is in a state of more or less continuous orientation. When progesterone is administered during sleep, it increases the proportion of REM sleep." January 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
High glucose consumption by the brain"When a person is physically inactive, the brain consumes about 60% of the body's glucose. And because of its dependence on glucose, it is easily damaged even by short periods of hypoglycemia." January 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Daily cycle of glycogen in the brain"The amount of glycogen in the tissues follows a daily cycle – especially in the brain, where it decreases during the day and is replenished at night." January 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Cortisol in response to low glycogen stores"If there is not enough glycogen stored in the liver, muscles and other tissues to meet the brain's nighttime glucose demand, cortisol levels rise. It breaks down tissue proteins to provide amino acids and glucose, and this nighttime stress also leads to an increase in free fatty acids." January 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
With increasing age, the levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the brain rise."Since the proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids increases with age, arachidonic acid, among other substances, is incorporated into the brain. Especially at night, the highly unsaturated fatty acids intensify excitatory processes, including the formation of prostaglandins and other pro-inflammatory compounds." January 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Carbohydrate consumed in the evening or at night lowers cortisol."If a large part of the daily carbohydrate intake occurs late in the day or even at night, this can help replenish glycogen in the brain – with less need for cortisol. This also helps to reduce the nighttime rise in free fatty acids and their excitatory-inflammatory effects." January 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The central role of steroid hormones in animal physiology "Steroid hormones are involved in all aspects of animal physiology and overlap with regulatory functions of the nervous system, peptide hormones, metabolites, prostaglandins, cyclic nucleotides, etc." Generative Energy Restoring The Wholeness Of Life |
The role of progesterone in calming cells and preventing seizures"Part of progesterone's protective effect is based on its calming effect on cells. For example, it tends to prevent seizure activity in brain cells. During childbirth, its normal function is to act as an anesthetic." – Generative Energy Restoring The Wholeness Of Life |
Brain levels of certain hormones decrease with age."The brain contains significantly more pregnenolone, DHEA and progesterone than other organs or the blood, and these levels progressively decrease with age." – Generative Energy Restoring The Wholeness Of Life |
Skin and brain as overlooked sites of steroid synthesis"The skin and brain are important sites of steroid synthesis and are usually ignored by endocrinologists who study steroid hormones." – Generative Energy Restoring The Wholeness Of Life |
The relationship between larger brain and longevity, re-examined"Sacher popularized the idea that a larger brain is associated with a longer lifespan, and others have more recently refined this idea – in relation to body size, cephalization index and metabolic rate." – Generative Energy Restoring The Wholeness Of Life |
Positive effects of progesterone on brain growth“Marion Diamond, who studied the effects of stimulation on the brain development of rats, found that pregnancy or treatment with progesterone – similar to freedom and stimulation – made the brain grow, while estrogen – similar to stress – made it shrink.” – Generative Energy Restoring The Wholeness Of Life |
Neotenic effects of progesterone on human traits"The effects of progesterone are neotenic, in the sense of prolonging youthful characteristics. Women have several neotenic traits compared to men, including a higher brain-to-fat-free-body-mass ratio, a smaller face-to-skull ratio, differences in voice and body hair, less aggressiveness, and greater adaptability. (Despite the people who teach assertiveness, I think that high adaptability and low aggressiveness are characteristic human and primate traits, typical of infants, and probably represent the future of our species.)" – Generative Energy Restoring The Wholeness Of Life |
Optimizing energy production for renewable energy capabilities"If we optimize the known factors that improve energy production (for example, red light, short- and medium-chain saturated fats, and pregnenolone) so that our metabolism resembles that of a ten-year-old child, I see no reason to assume that we would not have the regenerative and healing abilities that are common at that age. I suspect that both brain growth and remodeling could continue indefinitely." – Generative Energy Restoring The Wholeness Of Life |
Brain atrophy associated with certain stress conditions"Instead of a programmed or random continuous loss of cells, brain atrophy, when it occurs, appears to be caused by certain conditions – for example, stress with prolonged exposure to glucocorticoid hormones." – Generative Energy Restoring The Wholeness Of Life |
Julien de la Mettrie's Physiology Based on Organ Functions"Based on various biological facts – including the independent motility and irritability of the intestines and heart, as well as the regeneration of a hydra from small fragments – Julien de la Mettrie proposed a new kind of physiology based on the idea of organization. He argued that thinking was as natural for an organ with the structure of the brain as beating was for the heart. He considered thinking to be perfectly compatible with organized matter." – Generative Energy Restoring The Wholeness Of Life |
High energy demands of the brain and nutritional needs"The brain is a very energy-intensive organ, and the liver must be very efficient to meet this demand. Therefore, if there is a nutritional or hormonal problem, the issues can be particularly pronounced. The need for sugar, protein, vitamins, and minerals can be very high." – Email reply from Ray Peat |
Effects of nutrient deficiencies on neurological imbalances"The imbalances of endorphins, serotonin, catecholamines, and other neuroregulatory hormones observed in autism can sometimes also occur in adults due to a combination of exhaustion and poor nutrition. And when liver glycogen is depleted, restoring balance can be difficult. Various prenatal influences could damage connectivity, yet the cells still survive. Normally, a large proportion of brain cells die before birth because glucose is only available in limited quantities." – Email reply from Ray Peat |
Mineral deposits in the senile brain and aluminum in the diet"The senile brain accumulates a variety of mineral deposits, and it has been argued that dietary aluminum is the cause of Alzheimer's disease. It would be good to remove added aluminum from public water systems and our food, but there is good evidence that other processes are behind the accumulation of aluminum and other minerals in our tissues." February 2001 |
Calcium and iron deposits in mitochondria and diseases"Calcium and iron tend to be deposited together, and the mitochondria are usually the starting points for this deposition. Iron overload has been linked to heart disease, cancer, diabetes, and many other degenerative diseases, including brain disorders." February 2001 |
Estrogen and its interaction with albumin during uptake into brain cells"Protein-bound estrogen is an active form of estrogen, and albumin-bound estrogen likely accounts for the majority of estrogenic activity. Free fatty acids, which compete with estrogen for binding to steroid-binding globulin, probably alter the properties of the abundant albumin so that it binds more estrogen in its active form. This shifts estrogen from other proteins, lipoproteins, and red blood cells to activated albumin. The presence of fats bound to albumin makes albumin more lipophilic ('fat-loving'), and molecules are taken up into cells—especially in brain cells—according to their fat solubility. There is no blood-brain barrier for fat-soluble molecules." February 2001 |
Toxic effects of serotonin and nitric oxide on brain cells"Serotonin does not cure depression, and both serotonin and nitric oxide impair blood flow and are toxic to brain cells. Both poison mitochondrial respiration." February 2001 |
Natural antagonists in the treatment of degenerative brain diseases“Antiendorphin, anti-excitotoxic, anticholinergic, antiserotonergic, antiprostaglandin, and antiglucocorticoid drugs have been used with good results in various degenerative diseases of the nervous system, but all these so-called ‘anti’ drugs are imprecise antagonists and have many side effects. Natural antagonists and nutrients are usually helpful. Protein, sodium, magnesium, carbon dioxide/bicarbonate, progesterone, thyroid hormone, vitamins, etc., can have a healing effect in many brain diseases.” February 2001 |
Neuroprotective and mitochondria-supporting effects of progesterone"Besides its anti-estrogenic effect, progesterone is a neurosteroid, an anti-excitotoxic agent, and an inhibitory modulator. These effects in the nervous system have parallels in the immune system, where it modulates the activities of many cells: It protects the thymus, slows down the degranulation of mast cells, and inhibits the shock response. It is an antitoxin that stabilizes cell structure and function. In the mitochondria, it maintains or restores the efficiency of respiration." March 2000 |
Defective mitochondrial respiration in diseases of various organs"Today it is well recognized that impaired mitochondrial respiration is a key factor in diseases of the muscles, brain, liver, kidneys and other organs." July 2000 |
Hypothyroidism and excessive activity of the adrenergic nervous system"In hypothyroidism, the adrenergic nervous system tends to be overactive, and adrenaline production is maintained at a high level even when there is no external reason for it – because it is needed in the inefficient metabolic state of hypothyroidism to ensure adequate blood sugar and energy levels." January 2000 - Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Effects of CO₂ loss on cerebral blood flow and effects of hyperventilation"The loss of carbon dioxide reduces blood flow to the brain and can cause complex paresthesias as well as stroke symptoms. Hyperventilation is a relative term and refers to the amount of carbon dioxide lost from the blood. Heavy, rapid breathing at high altitude or in a carbon dioxide-rich atmosphere is not necessarily hyperventilation." December 1999 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Limiting effect of carbon dioxide on the overexcitation of nerves and muscles"Carbon dioxide limits the electrical depolarization of nerves and muscles – a phenomenon first discovered by Gilbert Ling. This prevents overexcitation and exhaustion of brain and muscle cells, including the heart. The presence of carbon dioxide limits the formation of lactic acid. This explains the lactate paradox during exertion at high altitude." December 1999 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Alzheimer's disease: Respiratory metabolism in the brain and CO₂ deficiency"In Alzheimer's disease, the respiratory metabolism of the brain is inhibited. This leads to a carbon dioxide deficiency with an excess of lactic acid and ammonia." December 1999 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Metabolic and inflammatory processes in Alzheimer's disease and multiple sclerosis"Both Alzheimer's disease and multiple sclerosis are associated with reduced brain metabolism in combination with an inflammatory process." December 1999 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The relationship between lactic acid, CO₂ and degenerative brain diseases"If an excess of lactic acid in brain tissue is typical for Alzheimer's and multiple sclerosis, then the lactate paradox suggests that a slightly higher retention of carbon dioxide in the brains of Kashmir's inhabitants would counteract chronic excitotoxic effects. This would suppress the stress metabolism that leads to degenerative brain diseases." December 1999 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Sodium, progesterone and glucose in brain development"In the fetus and newborn, sodium promotes growth. Progesterone, sodium, and glucose are often limiting factors for the growth of the baby's brain; if they are lacking, cells die instead of growing." 1998 – Ray Peat's Newsletter – 4 |
Carbon dioxide as a protective factor against hypoxia in the brain"In many situations, including hypoxia in the brain, carbon dioxide is the crucial protective factor." 1998 – Ray Peat's Newsletter – 4 |
Role of carbon dioxide in the prevention of edema and water retention"The 'water-saturated' state seen in blood vessels, lungs, and other organs during shock or stress, as well as cerebral edema and cataracts following various metabolic disorders, appear to be associated with the intake of free water—while simultaneously losing bound (non-freezable) water. Carbon dioxide seems to promote water binding and protect against edematous conditions." 1998 – Ray Peat's Newsletter – 3 |
Internal carbon dioxide production and brain development"Even during periods of lower atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, our Krebs cycle still produces it internally, and the rapid development of the brain during pregnancy utilizes the high carbon dioxide concentration in the uterus." 1997 - Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Reproductive aging, hypothalamic regulation and hormonal support"About 30 years ago, researchers began to understand that reproductive aging is not caused by a lack of eggs, and that the aging uterus could support a pregnancy if it received the right hormonal support. Interest turned to the brain cells in the hypothalamus that regulate the pituitary gland." August/September 1995 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Stress, estrogen and the role of the brain in menopause and aging“Stress – especially when amplified by estrogen – leads to damage, exhaustion, and aging. The uterus and ovaries are involved in the stress response, but (as Zeilmaker and Wise have shown) the brain is more directly involved in menopause than either the ovaries or the uterus. Coordination proves crucial for complex processes such as ovulation, fertilization, and implantation. The destruction of the nerve cells that regulate the pituitary gland makes coordination impossible.” August/September 1995 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Role of gonadotropins for ovarian and brain function in the aging process"Gonadotropins are involved in the development, maintenance, and function of the ovaries, and their effects depend on their timing, their balance with each other, and with the steroids that the ovaries produce in response to their stimulation. Their effects are also influenced by many other factors—originating from the ovaries, the nervous system, the pituitary gland, the uterus, and the immune system. In youth, the system functions in a coordinated manner, with ovulation being a consequence. With age, the crucial changes appear to be a declining ability of the ovaries and brain to produce progesterone." August/September 1995 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Pituitary hypersecretion and risks for ovarian cancer"Two things can cause the pituitary gland to secrete excessive amounts of gonadotropins: a deficiency of steroids and damage to the steroid-sensing nerves that regulate the pituitary gland. If an ovary is relocated (transplanted into the spleen) so that its hormones are destroyed before they reach the brain, there is an oversecretion of gonadotropic hormones, and tumors develop in the ovary. The interpretation that the oversecretion causes the tumors is supported by other observations—for example, that the removal of one ovary increases the likelihood of developing cancer in the other ovary, and that prolonged use of estrogen (which is known to create the conditions for subsequent oversecretion of gonadotropin) increases the risk of ovarian cancer after menopause." August/September 1995 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The role of estrogen and cortisol in epileptic seizures and brain diseases"Estrogen increases the brain's susceptibility to epileptic seizures, and recent research shows that it (like cortisol) promotes the effects of excitotoxins, which are increasingly associated with degenerative brain diseases." August/September 1995 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The brain as the primary organ of "free" adaptation"As Felix Meerson has shown, the brain is the preferred organ for adaptation because adaptation at the level of learning has no biological cost – in the sense of a restriction of our structure and function." November 1994 - Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Role of Ritalin in improving concentration via brain energy"Since the 1960s, a stimulant, Ritalin (methylphenidate), has frequently been prescribed to hyperactive children because it enables them to be quietly attentive. This effect has been described as paradoxical, but from the point of view of scientific physiology, there is nothing paradoxical about it. The frontal lobes of the brain—the most highly developed part—give us the ability to plan and understand complex things that require sustained attention. Without this higher part of the brain, which has a very high energy demand, humans and animals become hyperactive and unable to concentrate. Ritalin (or caffeine) makes everyone—even the most brilliant students—more attentive and focused. Caffeine and Ritalin temporarily increase the brain's energy levels." April 1994 - Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Importance of thyroid hormones for sustained high brain energy"Thyroid hormones are crucial for providing the energy that keeps the brain constantly at a high energy level. When these hormones are lacking, our nerves need stimulants to function normally, and the body typically produces large amounts of adrenaline to keep us going. The result is that we feel both tired and tense." April 1994 - Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The influence of carbohydrates and salt on brain energy and relaxation"The brain is like a muscle: it needs to replenish its energy in order to relax. Many people have noticed that they become drowsy when they eat a lot of carbohydrates and/or salt. Both salt and carbohydrates tend to lower adrenaline, and carbohydrates can additionally increase the activity of thyroid hormones while restoring energy to the tissues." April 1994 - Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The heart as an indicator of stress resistance and longevity"The heart gives us some clues about our overall resilience to stress, aging, illness, and death. The heart and brain are the most stress-resistant organs, and while moderate stress and malnutrition can cause the skin and thymus gland to lose more than 90% of their substance, only the most prolonged and intense stress can cause the heart and brain to lose more than a quarter of their substance." June 1992 - Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Adaptive organ response under stress conditions"If we are able to respond appropriately and adaptively to stress, there is a shift of substance from the less efficient organs (usually skin and thymus) to the organs that bear the greatest load – usually the heart and brain." June 1992 - Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The role of anti-catabolic steroids in the brain"The other anti-catabolic steroids – pregnenolone, progesterone and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) – are present in larger quantities and are of more general importance than testosterone, especially in the brain, where their concentration is very high." June 1992 - Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Adaptation and stress resistance mechanisms of the brain"Our brain is the newest and most powerful organ for adaptation and stress resistance, enabling the simpler systems of circulation and metabolism to align themselves in such a way as to achieve the greatest possible benefit with the least possible damage. Just as there are pro- and anti-catabolic hormones and circulatory patterns, the brain also has stress-promoting and stress-limiting systems." June 1992 - Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Sleep as a brain function for stress reduction"Sleep is a general stress-reducing function of the brain." June 1992 - Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Heart failure and the response of protective systems to stress"If stress is strong enough and lasts long enough to overcome the heart's diverse protective systems, the heart will fail in specific, clearly defined ways – both functionally and structurally. But before damage occurs, the stress-limiting self-regulatory systems of the heart, the endocrine system, and the brain must first fail." June 1992 - Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Progesterone activates the respiratory center to combat stress"Under stress, even the respiratory center in the brain becomes underactive and tolerates a state of hypoxia. Since progesterone activates the respiratory center, the reduced breathing under stress is consistent with a progesterone deficiency." June 1992 - Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Comparison of the stress resistance of the heart and liver"The resilience of the heart and liver can be compared in various ways. For example, DNA replication in the liver is more easily suppressed by stress than in the heart, but DNA repair is not affected by stress in the same way. An overactive heart stabilizes DNA against damage, so DNA repair is greater in the liver than in the heart – and least in the brain." June 1992 - Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Anti-stress effects of GABA and protective mechanisms“Meerson’s lab has investigated the anti-stress and anti-adrenaline-like effects of GABA and its metabolite gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB), particularly in the form of lithium salt. (Lithium appears to have its own anti-stress effect, presumably partly as a sodium agonist and partly through its ability to complex with the ammonium produced in the brain during exhaustion—precisely when the GABA system becomes active.) GHB acts as a protective agent against stress-induced tissue damage. It prevents stress-induced enzyme leakage from tissues, gastric ulceration, lipid peroxidation, epileptic seizures, impaired cardiac contractility, and cardiac arrhythmias caused by stress or ischemia.” June 1992 - Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Age-related decline in brain-stabilizing hormones"With age, pregnenolone and its derivatives – progesterone and DHEA – decline sharply. The brain, the organ with the highest concentration of these stabilizing substances, has many systems to adapt to their decreasing concentration, but the immune system is probably less able to compensate for these age-related changes." August/September 1992 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Alzheimer's disease: protective steroids and phagocyte function"The combination of an extreme drop in the concentration of protective steroids in the brain and impaired phagocyte function could explain some features of Alzheimer's disease. In this disease, microtubules accumulate in nerve cells, and other nerve cells die, leaving behind tangles of their axons, including microtubules. These cells are not removed, as is normally the case with dead cells. Below-average body temperature and hypothyroidism are thought to contribute to phagocyte sluggishness." August/September 1992 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Alzheimer's disease: protective steroids and phagocyte function"Progesterone has the special status of being an essential factor for nerve growth and generally blocks the catabolic effects of glucocorticoids and estrogen. In doing so, it protects all tissues – from brain cells to white blood cells." August/September 1992 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The role of energy in brain function and behavioral patterns"The availability of energy is central to our stable functioning, and energy requirements significantly alter how we function. For example, as hunger increases, the brain's interpretive system changes so that more and more unknown things are considered potential food. The spreading arousal that leads to this expanded search likely also occurs in relation to needs other than hunger and could lead to experimentation with drugs and other activities that provide indirect gratification. Compulsive and obsessive patterns can sometimes be resolved by supporting the brain's energy metabolism—for example, with magnesium and thyroid supplementation." June 1991 - Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Effects of thyroid hormone on sleep, cramps and anxiety"Although many people think of the thyroid as a kind of stimulant because it can cure the coma or lethargy of myxedema, this is a very misleading notion. In hypothyroidism, the brain-stimulating hormones adrenaline, estrogen, and cortisol are usually elevated, and the nerve-muscle relaxant magnesium is low. Normal, deep sleep is rare in a hypothyroid person. The correct dose of triiodothyronine (the active thyroid hormone) along with magnesium is a reliable treatment for insomnia, cramps, and anxiety—regardless of whether these symptoms are caused by exhaustion, aging, or alcohol withdrawal." June 1991 - Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Historical use of hypertonic solutions in therapy"Until about 1940, the use of hypertonic solutions in therapy was quite common. Books still mention the use of urea (USP) as a diuretic for treating cerebral swelling, but I have not heard of it being used in this way in the United States today." July 1991 - Ray Peat's Newsletter |
PMS, edema and historical treatments"Edema is a common problem in PMS, and it was previously thought that cerebral edema was responsible for irritability or depression or other nervous symptoms, and diuretics such as ammonium compounds and urea were frequently used. (Premenstrual salt cravings are the result of estrogen-disrupted water balance, and salt restriction in PMS is just as inappropriate as in preeclampsia or pregnancy toxemia.)" July 1991 - Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Inhibitory brain cells and the relationship between acetylcholine and histamine"Some inhibitory cells in the brain (including those involved in the comatose state of protective inhibition) secrete acetylcholine. The similarity in the effects of histamine and acetylcholine was so great that many people previously considered histamine to be the systemic cholinergic hormone equivalent of acetylcholine. Because of this similarity, any chemical that disrupts one of these neurotransmitters is likely to disrupt the other as well—though not necessarily in the same way." January 1991 - Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Anti-stress effects of GABA and promotion of progesterone"The most important inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain is GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid), which is closely related to aspartic and succinic acid. GABA has many anti-stress effects, in addition to its direct calming effect on the brain. For example, it causes insulin to be stored so that some of the sugar is not converted into fat, and it promotes the production of progesterone, which protects many systems from harmful overactivity." January 1991 - Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Stress and the harmful effects of glucocorticoids on the brain"It is now clear that both stress and an excess of glucocorticoid hormones cause brain damage (as well as damage to all other organs). Marion Diamond's work with rats (caged or free) showed that stress causes very general brain damage, including to the cerebral cortex, and others have shown specific damage to the hypothalamus, hippocampus, and other brain regions." January 1991 - Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Effects of anticholinergic drugs on the brain and hormone production"Excessive cholinergic activity can, in itself, cause brain damage. The anticholinergic drugs amantadine (Symmetrel) and atropine (related to substances from the thorn apple) were used to treat Parkinson's disease. Atropine was formerly listed as an antidote for many poisons, presumably because of its stabilizing effect on the nerves. It also promotes the production of the protective hormone progesterone." January 1991 - Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Decline in protective hormones in the aging brain"In young people, the brain contains a very high concentration of pregnenolone and its derivatives, DHEA and progesterone – all substances that stabilize cells and protect them from the effects of cortisol. However, with age, these fall to about 5% of their normal concentration, leaving the brain exposed to the destructive effects of cortisol." January 1991 - Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Cellular excitation, energy availability, and cell survival"Since excessive excitation of cells (relative to the available energy) leads to cell death – in the brain as well as elsewhere – it is important to consider as many natural forms of inhibition as possible while doing everything possible to maintain energy production." January 1991 - Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Taurine and glycine as inhibitory neurotransmitters in the brain"The amino acids taurine and glycine are also considered inhibitory messenger substances in the brain." January 1991 - Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Taurine and glycine as inhibitory neurotransmitters in the brain"The brain's levels of progesterone, pregnenolone, and DHEA are normally 20 to 30 times higher than the serum concentration, and these hormones protect against both estrogen and cortisone." April 1991 - Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Toxic effects of estrogen on the brain and aging"Excessive blood clotting is just one of the problems that can be caused by an excess of estrogen, and I don't want to overemphasize this, as I consider its toxic effects on the brain and its acceleration of brain aging to be its worst effects." April 1991 - Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Administration of cortisol produces age-like symptoms in organ systems"The most important features of aging can be directly produced by administering excessive amounts of cortisol. These features include atrophy of the skin, arteries, muscles, bones, immune system and parts of the brain, loss of pigment (melanin), fat deposits in certain areas, and a slowed nerve conduction velocity." October 1990 - Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Potential benefits of delayed puberty according to animal studies"If we can generalize from animal studies, delaying puberty could increase brain size and lifespan, improve intelligence, reduce violence, and even make people more physically attractive." October 1990 - Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Influence of cholesterol on the production of protective hormones"The highest cholesterol concentration in the body is found in the brain. The cholesterol level in the blood strongly influences the production of protective hormones, such as progesterone." October 1990 - Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Positive feedback systems with progesterone and thyroid hormones"However, the existence of some positive feedback systems (self-stimulation) suggests that in our basic structure we tend in an expansive, upward direction. Progesterone (and its precursors pregnenolone and cholesterol) as well as thyroid hormones are involved in some important positive feedback systems relating to energy production, stress resistance and brain growth." October 1990 - Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Camphoric acid as a copper transporter for the brain and lymphatic system"I was interested in using camphoric acid to transport copper: this would allow it to reach the brain and also be absorbed via the lymphatic system, thus bypassing the liver and enabling a large dose to be absorbed without damaging the liver." June 1988 - Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Different effects of endorphins and immunosuppression by opiates"Since I mentioned endorphins above in connection with resistance to infections, I should add that these endogenous peptides are actually a family of substances with very different properties: some activate the right hemisphere of the brain, others the left. The two hemispheres have different effects on the immune system. Opiates are strong suppressants of immunity. I think it's clear that morphine and codeine should never be used if there is an immunodeficiency." June 1988 - Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Destructive cortisol excess: intestinal enzymes and allergies"Although a physiologically balanced amount of cortisol induces detoxification enzymes—for example, in the gut—an unchecked excess leads to the destruction of these enzymes. This results in a significant loss of the gut's barrier function and the development of allergies. This effect of cortisol on the thymus and on the detoxifying intestinal enzymes very likely explains the frequent association of allergies with viral infections. Since cortisol has a destabilizing, spasmolytic effect on the nervous system, psychological symptoms—ranging from compulsive behavior to depression or seizures—are also likely associated with these other chronic conditions." August/September 1988 - Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Epilepsy and insomnia as states of low energy in brain cells"Epilepsy is an example of a very low-energy state of brain cells. Insomnia is a low-energy state and is usually cured by the correct dose of thyroid hormone – along with sufficient glucose and other nutrients." February 1986 |
Ray Peat on the brain
Supplements according to Ray Peat
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Grass Fed Desiccated Beef Liver Supplement
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Hydrolyzed Grass-Fed Beef Collagen Peptides
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Grass Fed Desiccated Beef Thyroid Supplement
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Vitamin D3 + K2 MK7 - 4000 IU + 200 mcg drops
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