Ray Peat on salt and sodium

Physical adaptation phase to increased sodium intake

"If you suddenly increase your sodium intake, your body needs one to two days to adapt. During this time, you retain some extra water. After this short adaptation phase, however, you excrete sodium in the same amount that you ingest it."

Nutrition For Women

Influence of estrogen on water retention and salt cravings

"Under the influence of excess estrogen, your body retains extra water, and your appetite center should compensate for this water by making you crave more salt. If you learn to avoid salty foods during these times (or if you take a diuretic), your blood cannot carry as much water as it would when there is enough salt present. As a result, the salt remains in the tissues instead of being transported to the kidneys via the blood."

Nutrition For Women

The importance of salt in the diet of pregnant women

"Tom Brewer demonstrated the importance of consuming sufficient salt during pregnancy to maintain adequate blood volume. When salt intake is restricted during pregnancy, the reduced blood volume cannot transport enough oxygen and nutrients to the uterus, preventing the baby from developing properly. As a result, the kidneys secrete a hormone to stimulate circulation, increasing the risk of high blood pressure."

Nutrition For Women

The role of sodium in circulatory weakness and various ailments

“Building on Brewer’s research, I realized that additional sodium should also help in other situations where the circulatory system is working inefficiently. Premenstrual water retention, insomnia, and even high blood pressure often respond very well to it.”

Nutrition For Women

Effects of sodium on magnesium storage during stress

"One of the most important effects of sodium is that it tends to conserve magnesium, which is easily lost during periods of stress and hypothyroidism. If we eat salty foods when we crave them, we can retain magnesium more easily in the body."

Nutrition For Women

Sodium as a protein-sparing factor in kidney function

"There is even evidence that sodium can conserve protein. Because if there is not enough sodium to excrete in the urine and thus neutralize acids, the kidneys waste protein to form ammonium – as an ionic substitute for sodium."

Nutrition For Women

The central importance of sodium for maintaining blood volume

"The most important point to remember is that sodium is crucial for maintaining adequate blood volume, and that restricting sodium intake is almost always unphysiological and irrational. A reduced blood volume tends to reduce the supply of oxygen and nutrients to all tissues, which can lead to many problems."

Nutrition For Women

Nutritional requirements for stress resistance and recovery

"Stress appears to increase a person's need for all nutrients, including calories and protein. The vitamins most commonly used to cope with stress are A, C, E, and pantothenic acid. The minerals magnesium, calcium, potassium, and zinc can help in the early stages of stress, and sodium supplements may be necessary in the final, extreme stress phase when the adrenal glands are exhausted."

Nutrition For Women

Salt solutions to maintain muscle mass during fasting

"A recent study (1975) investigates the possibility that a balanced saline solution can prevent the breakdown of muscle and other protein-rich tissue during fasting. I have found that such a solution alleviates feelings of stress, therefore I believe that it will be shown to prevent protein breakdown."

Nutrition For Women

The role of aspirin in mitochondrial oxygen consumption and fever

"Probably because of aspirin's fever-reducing effect, medical culture tends to view it as non-thermogenic – despite its known stimulation of mitochondrial oxygen consumption. Like thyroid hormone, aspirin prevents stress-induced sodium loss, which is an important part of our system for regulating temperature and energy."

November 2020 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Nutrition-induced thermogenesis and endogenous energy regulation

"Nutritional thermogenic factors include sodium, calcium, vitamin D, carbohydrates – especially sugars – and protein. They work together with our body's own energy regulation factors, especially the thyroid gland and progesterone."

November 2020 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

The recovery process in nerve cells and the selectivity of ions

"In the activated state, nerve cells allow extracellular ions such as sodium to enter, but the restoration of the exclusive state occurs instantaneously. The state of the proteins resembles that of momentarily denatured proteins. With excessive stimulation, the recovery is incomplete, and when the proteins and the gel structure are in a partially denatured state, experimentally introduced foreign molecules (dyes) can be observed inside the cells."

Mind And Tissue Russian Research Perspectives on the Human Brain

Pregnancy, energy and adequate nutrient supply

"The importance of salt and calcium during pregnancy is related to their effects on the respiratory energy system. The fact that these effects are not widely known has led most doctors to believe that a diet providing all necessary nutrients is sufficient for pregnancy and breastfeeding. Despite the presence of all necessary nutrients—which would be sufficient for someone with a generally supportive environment—a good diet is not necessarily sufficient for someone with a problematic environment or a history of stressful experiences."

May 2019 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Influence of diet on hormone secretion

"Increasing sodium and calcium intake (and vitamin D, which also helps lower parathyroid hormone and aldosterone) can reduce the release of aldosterone and parathyroid hormone, leading to an increase in oxidative energy production."

May 2019 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Ling's critique of the sodium pump theory

"While biologists claimed to be defending mechanistic-materialistic science against vitalism, they were in fact rarely able to think in physicochemical categories – and that was precisely the core of Ling's work. His critique of the sodium pump in the cell membrane made it clear that this pump was merely the 'ghost in the machine' needed to animate the conventional theory of the living cell."

March 2020 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Active transport and the role of ATP in cells

"The membrane theory states that the accumulation of a substance against its concentration gradient is an active transport process requiring the use of ATP. Experiments by Ling and others showed that the energy metabolism of cells could be so disrupted that no ATP was produced, yet the cells could still maintain their ion gradient – ​​even though sodium could freely diffuse through the membrane into the cell. All ATP has to do is be present and passively occupy its place in the cell."

March 2020 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Ling's view on the binding energy of ATP

"Since Ling did not assume that the binding energy of ATP is constantly consumed to drive sodium pumps in the cell membrane, he was also not concerned with the energy that might be released during the hydrolysis of this bond. He was – like Albert Szent-Gyorgyi – aware that the ATP molecule adsorbs onto protein molecules with considerable energy and that its presence determines the shape of the protein molecule."

March 2020 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Replacement of the sperm cell with simple substances

"Loeb showed that the specific biological stimulus of a sperm cell interacting with a receptor in the egg cell was not necessary to fertilize an egg cell; seawater – with added salt or sugar or urea, or with acid or alkali – was sufficient."

January 2019 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Overlooked nutritional factors in infertility

"Too much carotene, too little vitamin A, not enough magnesium or sodium and too much cortisol are frequently overlooked factors in infertility."

Generative Energy Restoring The Wholeness Of Life

The role of nutrition in preventing pregnancy complications

"Sufficient protein, glucose and sodium to maintain blood volume will prevent most of these problems in later pregnancy – unless the hormonal imbalance is very severe."

Generative Energy Restoring The Wholeness Of Life

Natural antagonists in the treatment of degenerative brain diseases

“Antiendorphin, anti-excitotoxic, anticholinergic, antiserotonergic, antiprostaglandin, and antiglucocorticoid drugs have been used with good results in various degenerative diseases of the nervous system, but all so-called ‘anti’ drugs are imprecise antagonists and have many side effects. Natural antagonists and nutrients are usually helpful. Protein, sodium, magnesium, carbon dioxide/bicarbonate, progesterone, thyroid function, vitamins, etc., can have a healing effect in many brain diseases.”

February 2001 - February

Effects of estrogen on tissue water and the sodium-potassium ratio

"The immediate effect of estrogen on responsive tissue is that it absorbs water and increases its sodium-to-potassium ratio. These changes lead to the depolarization and activation of nerve, muscle, and some glandular cells, as well as the initiation of growth and cell division in other cell types. If this growth process were to continue unchecked or even accelerate, it is obvious that form, proportion, and organization would quickly be lost."

March 2000 - March

Refutation of the sodium pump theory in cell physiology

"Although no one could explain how a molecule could fling a sodium atom out of a cell or across membranes such as the kidney tubules, sodium pumps were supposed to explain the different sodium concentrations in different compartments, and it was said that water passively followed the sodium. This theory could not explain how water could be retained while sodium was lost, or why osmotic pressure varies under certain conditions."

January 2000 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Electroosmosis during water movement between cell compartments

“Physical chemists understood how water can be moved from one compartment to another through the process of electroosmosis, but cell physiologists generally continue to believe in their sodium pumps and attribute responsibility for water distribution to them. Discussions of edema in medical textbooks have something uncomfortably comical about them because their elaborate Rube Goldberg machines* don't do what they're supposed to do—despite all their embarrassing ad-hoc makeshift constructions and contortions.”

January 2000 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

The role of carbon dioxide in cellular ion regulation

"The adsorptive effects of carbon dioxide – and a wide variety of other chemical effects – modulate the structure and function of the cell so that it retains far more potassium than sodium and can excrete calcium while binding magnesium."

January 2000 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Estrogen excess and its effects on albumin synthesis

"An excess of estrogen suppresses the liver's ability to synthesize albumin. When this is combined with the leakage of albumin into the tissues (where it is slowly broken down) and into the urine, the blood loses its ability to retain sodium – a large proportion of which is bound to albumin."

January 2000 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Salt intake and its effect on premenstrual water retention

"Once I was convinced how salt restriction can cause edema, and since women are told to restrict salt to prevent premenstrual water retention, I began suggesting that women salt their food to taste and increase their salt intake premenstrually if they crave it. I had never heard that salt restriction was supposed to prevent premenstrual water retention, but I immediately kept hearing that women who ate as much salt as they wanted no longer had premenstrual water retention."

January 2000 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Salt and thyroid gland: Effects on blood pressure and sleep

"Since elevated adrenaline tends to raise blood pressure, I started explaining the effects of salt and the thyroid to friends over 80. They found that they slept better, had more regular heartbeats, and didn't get swollen feet when they ate a normal amount of salt. It didn't cause their blood pressure to rise."

January 2000 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

The body quickly adapts to changes in salt intake.

"In my experiments, the body only needed two to three days to fully adapt to a massive change in salt intake. Many hormones adapt quickly to retain or excrete sodium – depending on the amount consumed – provided the person is otherwise well-nourished."

January 2000 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Natural factors for correcting edema and supporting cell function

"The thyroid gland, protein, sodium, and magnesium will correct most edema. Progesterone acts on the mitochondria to increase respiratory efficiency and on structural proteins to alter their ion affinities. It thus works synergistically with the other natural factors to normalize permeability and water regulation."

January 2000 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Studies on parathyroid hormone and mineral interchangeability

"About 88 years ago, W.K. Koch (known for his cancer therapy) investigated parathyroid hormone and its relationship to tetany (sustained muscle contraction) and seizures. He was able to show that the key minerals – sodium, potassium, magnesium, and calcium – are interchangeable to some extent in relieving the tetany and seizures caused by the removal of the parathyroid gland, with magnesium being the most effective."

December 1999 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Effective treatments for shock that were developed earlier

“I have previously written about several dramatically effective treatments for shock that have been developed in the last fifty years – for example, intravenous ATP, concentrated solutions of sodium chloride or glucose, and the morphine/endorphin blocker naloxone.”

1998 - Ray Peat's Newsletter - 4

Effect of sodium in the blood on the liver

"Liver ATP increases as a result of an increase in blood sodium. For example, an increase in blood sodium of only about 15% led to a near doubling of cellular ATP."

1998 - Ray Peat's Newsletter - 4

The role of sodium in water distribution in cells and in fatigue

"Sodium is an extracellular ion that binds water so strongly that under normal conditions it is excluded from the cell—a state in which water is dominated by the cell's structural molecules. Only when the cell is stimulated or fatigued does it take up larger amounts of sodium, and the fatigued cell also takes up an excess of water. Textbooks state that water follows sodium, but the physical reality is that sodium also follows (free) water and tends to be excluded from the water within cells. Increasing the sodium in the environment of a 'water-overloaded' cell tends to dehydrate the cell."

1998 - Ray Peat's Newsletter - 4

ATP production and the role of sodium in cells

"The membrane pump theory states that the cell consumes ATP to pump incoming sodium back out, and that more sodium outside the cell increases the likelihood of sodium entering the cell. In reality, however, more sodium outside the cell leads to more ATP being produced. The precise balance of ions seems to make the difference between ATP consumption and production."

1998 - Ray Peat's Newsletter - 4

Sodium, progesterone and glucose in brain development

"In the fetus and newborn, sodium promotes growth. Progesterone, sodium, and glucose are often limiting factors for the growth of the baby's brain; if they are lacking, cells die instead of growing."

1998 - Ray Peat's Newsletter - 4

The energy-providing role of sodium in cell functions

"Sodium actually has an energizing effect. It helps to remove calcium from the cell, produce ATP, and promote the uptake of glucose and amino acids."

1998 - Ray Peat's Newsletter - 4

The role of carbon dioxide in regulation and energy production

"Carbon dioxide is heavily involved in the regulation of sodium and calcium, as well as in respiration and energy production. It tends to relax both nerves and muscles. Apparently, it is one of the key factors in preventing edema."

1998 - Ray Peat's Newsletter - 4

The role of sodium in cellular water and ion management

"Sodium binds water to itself, and it is precisely this property that leads to its exclusion from the normal cell. CO₂, when it is in water, combines with water – especially with the help of carbonic anhydrase enzymes. Since it is produced in the mitochondria, this means that it transports water (as well as calcium and sodium) into the cytoplasm and out of the cell."

1998 - Ray Peat's Newsletter - 4

Sodium retention and carbon dioxide in hypothyroidism

"Low thyroid function is associated with reduced carbon dioxide production, and body fluids do not retain as much sodium as in healthy individuals. Both urine and sweat tend to contain abnormally high sodium concentrations in hypothyroidism. Since CO₂ is central to pH regulation and the excretion of hydrogen ions (acidic urine) is a mechanism involved in sodium retention, the CO₂ deficiency in hypothyroidism is likely closely related to the inability to retain sufficient sodium."

1998 - Ray Peat's Newsletter - 4

Energy effect of hypertonic sodium in contrast to hypothyroidism

"If hypertonic sodium energizes, then the sodium-poor, hypoosmotic body fluids de-energize in hypothyroidism."

1998 - Ray Peat's Newsletter - 4

Magnesium deficiency and energy loss during muscle relaxation

"Cells in hypothyroidism are also unable to efficiently retain magnesium, and a magnesium deficiency prevents muscle relaxation, thus wasting energy. Sufficient sodium prevents magnesium loss through urine."

1998 - Ray Peat's Newsletter - 4

Sodium and carbon dioxide loss during stress

“Sodium and carbon dioxide are essential for maintaining normal fields, and these substances interact in a way that leads to both being lost under stress. In hypothyroidism, sodium is permanently lost because carbon dioxide is chronically replaced by lactic acid. Both sodium (Veech et al.; Garrahan and Glynn) and carbon dioxide help—by stimulating the Krebs cycle and keeping respiratory enzymes active—to maintain normal ATP levels and thus protect against stress and shock.”

1998 - Ray Peat's Newsletter - 2

Linked features of cell excitation and energy during stress adaptation

"The interconnected fundamental features of cell excitation/relaxation, electrical potential, lactic acid/carbon dioxide, water retention/water loss, salt regulation, pH, and energy levels allow us to understand the biological significance of stress and adaptation in a coherent way. Interacting with these physicochemical events, there are many levels of biochemical and physiological processes that enhance or modify them, including regulatory systems such as hormones and other biological signaling molecules, nutrient supply, and the type of fuel used."

1998 - Ray Peat's Newsletter - 2

The influence of carbohydrates and salt on brain energy and relaxation

"The brain is like a muscle in that it needs to replenish energy in order to relax. Many people have noticed that they become drowsy when they eat a lot of carbohydrates and/or salt. Both salt and carbohydrates tend to lower adrenaline, and carbohydrates can also increase the activity of thyroid hormones while restoring energy to the tissues."

April 1994 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Salt supplements to normalize pregnancy-related high blood pressure

"Two research projects showed that very high salt supplements reliably normalized high blood pressure in women with pregnancy toxemia."

June 1992 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Anti-stress effect of GABA and protective mechanisms

“Meerson’s lab has investigated the anti-stress and anti-adrenaline effects of GABA and its metabolite gamma-hydroxybutyrate, particularly in the form of the lithium salt. (Lithium appears to have its own anti-stress effect, probably partly as a sodium agonist and partly through its ability to complex with ammonium, which is produced in the brain during fatigue—precisely when the GABA system becomes active.) GHB protects against stress-related damage in many tissues. It prevents stress-induced enzyme leakage from tissues, gastric ulceration, lipid peroxidation, epileptic seizures, impaired cardiac contractility, and cardiac arrhythmias caused by stress or ischemia.”

June 1992 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Comprehensive list of protective nutritional chemicals

“A complete list of protective nutritional chemicals, as well as natural medicines or analogs to our body’s own protective factors, would be very long, but we should pay special attention to certain substances. These include succinic acid, which stimulates respiration and the synthesis of protective steroids; thyroid and vitamin E, which promote normal oxidation while preventing abnormal oxidation; magnesium; sodium and lithium, which help us retain magnesium; tropical fruits containing GHB; coconut oil, which protects against cardiac necrosis, lipid peroxidation, hypothyroidism, hypoglycemia, and histamine damage; Valium agonists, natural antihistamines; adenosine and uridine. Stays at higher altitudes and exposure to bright, long-wavelength light can cause the body to optimize its own anti-stress chemistry. Avoiding the feeling of being trapped is a high-level adaptive factor.”

June 1992 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Increased adaptability of the organism to toxins

"Aging, stress, and heavy alcohol consumption increase intestinal permeability, leading to greater absorption of microbial toxins. Laxatives, carrot fiber (not carrot juice), activated charcoal, and a small amount of sodium thiosulfate reduce the formation and absorption of toxins, thereby increasing the body's adaptability. Belladonna can improve bowel function if cramps occur during drug withdrawal."

June 1991 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Hypertonic sodium chloride for the treatment of various inflammations

"Hypertonic sodium chloride (Clifford White, Lancet, October 80, 1915) was also used to treat infected wounds, and its success in treating war injuries led to its use as a vaginal douche to treat various inflammations and infections, including infections associated with childbirth, salpingitis, cellulitis, gonorrhea, vaginitis, cervical erosions, and to prepare a cancerous cervix for surgery."

July 1991 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

PMS, edema and previous treatments

"Edema is a common problem in PMS, and it was previously believed that brain edema was responsible for irritability, depression, or other nervous symptoms. Therefore, diuretics such as ammonium compounds and urea were frequently used. (Premenstrual salt cravings result from estrogen-induced water imbalance, and salt restriction in PMS is as inappropriate as it is in preeclampsia or pregnancy toxemia.)"

July 1991 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Osmotic and biochemical effects in therapy

"Sodium chloride, glucose, and other substances can be used in high concentrations because of their osmotic effects, but they also have chemical and metabolic effects that are not necessarily desirable. Both osmotic and biochemical effects should be considered in any given therapy."

July 1991 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

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